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Perfume (Latin "per fume" meaning "through smoke") was highly favored by the Egyptians, Romans, and Arabs. In East Asia, perfumes were incense based. People used to make perfumes from spices and herbs like bergamot, myrtle, coriander, conifer resin, and almond. The use of flowers came only after Avicenna, an Iranian doctor and chemist showed the process of distillation, whereby oils could be extracted from flowers. In 1370, at the behest of Queen Elizabeth of Hungary, the world's first modern perfume - "Hungary Water" was made by blending scented oils in alcohol solution.

The composition of a perfume is of vital significance and is handled by an expert known as a perfumer, who deals with primary scents like rose, jasmine, cola, etc; modifiers like esters; blenders like linalool and hydroxycitronellol; and fixatives like resins, wood scents, and amber bases. The resulting scent is explained in a musical metaphor of three 'notes', namely, top notes (consisting of fast evaporating small size molecules) like citrus and ginger scents; middle notes (consisting of slow evaporating medium size molecules) like lavender and rose scents; and base notes (consisting of slowest evaporating largest size molecules) like fixatives etc. All these notes work together like a musical chord.

Perfume oils contain volatile compounds in high concentrations and thus have to be diluted by solvents, so that injury is not caused when applied directly on skin or clothes. The common solvent is pure ethanol or ethanol mixed with water. Fractionated coconut oil or wax, neutral smelling fats such as jojoba, can also act as solvents and dilute the perfume oil. The perfume oil is further mixed with other aromatic compounds. Generally, the percentage of aromatic compounds in perfume extract is 20% to 40%; in eau de parfum is 10% to 30%; in eau de toilette is 5% to 20%; and in eau de cologne is 2% to 5%.

The oil concentration in a perfume along with other aromatic compounds, determines the intensity, longevity, and price of the perfume and thus it is a closely guarded secret of every perfumer and perfume house. By adjusting the percentage level and the notes of the perfume, variations on the same brand may be created like Chanel's Pour Monsieur and Pour Monsieur Concentre.

Classification of perfumes is never complete, due to its ever-evolving nature. The traditional classification comprises of categories like Single Floral, Floral Bouquet, Ambery, Woody, Leather, Chypre, and Fougre; while the modern classification comprises of Bright Floral, Green, Oceanic/Ozone, Citrus/Fruity, and Gourmand. In 1983, Michael Edwards, a perfume consultant, created a new fragrance classification "The Fragrance Wheel", which classified and sub-grouped five standard families, namely Floral (Floral, Soft Floral, Floral Oriental), Oriental (Soft Oriental, Oriental, Woody Oriental), Woody (Wood, Mossy Woods, Dry Woods), Fougre (has fragrance elements from all the families), and Fresh (Citrus, Green, Water).

Perfumery has used a number of aromatic sources like plants, animals, and synthetic sources in the making of perfumes. Plants are used as a source of aroma compounds and essential oils. The parts of plants that are used are:

1 - Bark (cinnamon, cascarilla);
2 - Flowers (rose, jasmine, osmanthus, tuberose, mimosa, vanilla);
3 - Blossoms (citrus, ylang-ylang, clove);
4 - Fruits (apples, strawberries, cherries, litsea cubeba, juniper berry, vanilla, oranges, lemons, limes, grapefruit);
5 - Leaves and Twigs (lavender, patchouli, citrus, violets, sage, rosemary, hay, tomato);
6 - Resins (labdanum, myrrh, gum benzoin, Peru balsam, frankincense/olibanum, pine, fir, amber, copal);
7 - Roots, Bulbs, and Rhizomes (vetiver roots, ginger and iris rhizomes);
8 - Seeds (coriander, cocoa, mace, cardamom, anise, nutmeg, caraway, tonka bean);
9 - Woods (agarwood, birch, rosewood, sandalwood, pine, birch, juniper, cedar).

Animal sources include Ambergris, Castoreum, Musk, Rom terpenes, Honeycomb, and Civet. Other natural sources include Lichens and Protists. Synthetic sources include synthetic odorants synthesized from petroleum distillates, pine resins, etc. Modern perfumes are mostly made from synthetic sources as they allow fragrances not found in nature, like Calone is a synthetic compound that imparts a marine metallic ozonous fragrance. Synthetic aromatics are more consistent than natural aromatics, and are hence, widely used nowadays in modern available perfumes.

This article can also be accessed in portuguese language from the News Article section of page www.polomercantil.com.br/perfume-fragrancia.php
Roberto Sedycias works as IT consultant for www.PoloMercantil.com.br

It's no secret that professional piano players use techniques that amateur piano players don't. So what else is new? Professional golfers use techniques that amateur golfers don't use (at least not very well), and pro ball players use techniques that sandlot and weekend athletes don't use -- or again, not very well.

So it's not surprising that professional piano players have some tricks up their sleeves that the rest of us mortals don't have. But that doesn't mean we can't try to emulate the great pianists. We may not pull it off as well as them, but we sure can have a lot of fun trying, and who knows? Maybe a few of us can actually learn these techniques well enough to win some admiration from our friends, join a group, play for our own enjoyment, or whatever.

Here is a list of just a few of the technique the pros use when they play piano. There are more, of course, but this is a pretty good estimate of the most important skills:
Pro Secret 1: Straddles. Leaving one of more notes out of a chord to create an open feeling.
Pro Secret 2: 2/1 & 3/1 Breakups. Breaking a chord up by playing part of the chord & then the rest of the chord.
Pro Secret 3: Waterfall Chords. Broken chords cascading down from the top of the keyboard similar to a waterfall.
Pro Secret 4: Tremolo-Fired Runs. Rapid-fire runs made of chords, but starting with a tremolo.
Pro Secret 5: Half-Step Slides. Approaching the next chord from 1/2 step above or below.
Pro Secret 6: Suspensions. Using the 4th as a "hangover" instead of the 3rd.
Pro Secret 7: Chord Substitutions. Harmonizing songs using different chords than the traditional ones.
Pro Secret 8: Voicing in 4ths. Stacking chords in intervals of 4ths instead of 3rds.
Pro Secret 9: Turn-Arounds. A chord progression that turns you around, like a cul-de-sac.
Pro Secret 10: Introductions. Creating a front door for the song.
Pro Secret 11: Endings. Creating a back door for the song.
Pro Secret 12: Transposing. Playing a song in a key different than it was written in.
Pro Secret 13: Modulating. Getting from key to key smoothly.
Pro Secret 14: Altering a Melody to Create a New Melody. Using neighboring tones to craft a new tune.
Pro Secret 15: Inversions. Instead of always playing chords in root position, using a variety of "upside down" chords.
Pro Secret 16: Creating Original Chord Progressions. Linking chords together creatively.
Pro Secret 17: Echoes - Rhythmic, Melodic, Harmonic. The easiest way to begin the arranging process.
Pro Secret 18: Touch. The difference between a sledge hammer and a pillow.
Pro Secret 19: II7 to V7 Progression. One of the most common chord progressions.
Pro Secret 20: Latin-American Rhythms. Using various rhythm patterns such as Samba, Bossa Nova, Cha Cha, etc.
Pro Secret 21: Locked Hands Style. Playing the melody in both hands with a chord under the right hand melody.
Pro Secret 22: Jazz Styles. Lush, offset beats, comping, color tones, etc.
Pro Secret 23: Two-Handed Arps. The Flowing River Of Sound. Using broken chords in both hands at the same time.
Pro Secret 24: Parallelisms. Parts moving the same direction (such as 10ths, octaves, etc.)
Pro Secret 25: Ragtime Techniques. Barrel-house and early jazz styles.
Pro Secret 26: Polytonality & Superimposition. Playing in two keys at the same time, and playing two different chords at the same time.
Pro Secret 27: Delay-Catch-Up Technique. Falling behind the beat, then catching up.
Pro Secret 28: Slash Chords. Chords over a left-hand counter melody.
Pro Secret 29: Counter-Melodies. Creating a sub-tune that is complimentary to the main tune.
Pro Secret 30: Western Sounds. Wagon-wheel bass styles, etc.
Pro Secret 31: Gospel Sounds. "Get on that church" and "shouting" styles.
Pro Secret 32: 12 Bar Blues. The basis for thousands of songs in all styles.
Pro Secret 33: Passing Tones. Tones that "pass through" the current chord.
Pro Secret 34: Question-Answer Techniques. Repeating a previous musical phrase but in a new way.
Pro Secret 35: Far-Out Harmonies. Extended chords, altered chords.
Pro Secret 36: Syncopation. Playing between the beats.

There are other techniques the pros use, and new techniques are always being invented. But for a list of worthy goals for an aspiring piano player, this list will keep us busy for a long time.

For more info on piano playing secrets of the pros, please go to "Piano Playing Secrets Of The Pros!" In addition, a series of 101 free email lessons on piano playing is available at "Exciting Piano Lessons On Musical Chords & Sizzling Chord Progressions!"

It's no secret that professional piano players use techniques that amateur piano players don't. So what else is new? Professional golfers use techniques that amateur golfers don't use (at least not very well), and pro ball players use techniques that sandlot and weekend athletes don't use -- or again, not very well.

So it's not surprising that professional piano players have some tricks up their sleeves that the rest of us mortals don't have. But that doesn't mean we can't try to emulate the great pianists. We may not pull it off as well as them, but we sure can have a lot of fun trying, and who knows? Maybe a few of us can actually learn these techniques well enough to win some admiration from our friends, join a group, play for our own enjoyment, or whatever.

Here is a list of just a few of the technique the pros use when they play piano. There are more, of course, but this is a pretty good estimate of the most important skills:
Pro Secret 1: Straddles. Leaving one of more notes out of a chord to create an open feeling.
Pro Secret 2: 2/1 & 3/1 Breakups. Breaking a chord up by playing part of the chord & then the rest of the chord.
Pro Secret 3: Waterfall Chords. Broken chords cascading down from the top of the keyboard similar to a waterfall.
Pro Secret 4: Tremolo-Fired Runs. Rapid-fire runs made of chords, but starting with a tremolo.
Pro Secret 5: Half-Step Slides. Approaching the next chord from 1/2 step above or below.
Pro Secret 6: Suspensions. Using the 4th as a "hangover" instead of the 3rd.
Pro Secret 7: Chord Substitutions. Harmonizing songs using different chords than the traditional ones.
Pro Secret 8: Voicing in 4ths. Stacking chords in intervals of 4ths instead of 3rds.
Pro Secret 9: Turn-Arounds. A chord progression that turns you around, like a cul-de-sac.
Pro Secret 10: Introductions. Creating a front door for the song.
Pro Secret 11: Endings. Creating a back door for the song.
Pro Secret 12: Transposing. Playing a song in a key different than it was written in.
Pro Secret 13: Modulating. Getting from key to key smoothly.
Pro Secret 14: Altering a Melody to Create a New Melody. Using neighboring tones to craft a new tune.
Pro Secret 15: Inversions. Instead of always playing chords in root position, using a variety of "upside down" chords.
Pro Secret 16: Creating Original Chord Progressions. Linking chords together creatively.
Pro Secret 17: Echoes - Rhythmic, Melodic, Harmonic. The easiest way to begin the arranging process.
Pro Secret 18: Touch. The difference between a sledge hammer and a pillow.
Pro Secret 19: II7 to V7 Progression. One of the most common chord progressions.
Pro Secret 20: Latin-American Rhythms. Using various rhythm patterns such as Samba, Bossa Nova, Cha Cha, etc.
Pro Secret 21: Locked Hands Style. Playing the melody in both hands with a chord under the right hand melody.
Pro Secret 22: Jazz Styles. Lush, offset beats, comping, color tones, etc.
Pro Secret 23: Two-Handed Arps. The Flowing River Of Sound. Using broken chords in both hands at the same time.
Pro Secret 24: Parallelisms. Parts moving the same direction (such as 10ths, octaves, etc.)
Pro Secret 25: Ragtime Techniques. Barrel-house and early jazz styles.
Pro Secret 26: Polytonality & Superimposition. Playing in two keys at the same time, and playing two different chords at the same time.
Pro Secret 27: Delay-Catch-Up Technique. Falling behind the beat, then catching up.
Pro Secret 28: Slash Chords. Chords over a left-hand counter melody.
Pro Secret 29: Counter-Melodies. Creating a sub-tune that is complimentary to the main tune.
Pro Secret 30: Western Sounds. Wagon-wheel bass styles, etc.
Pro Secret 31: Gospel Sounds. "Get on that church" and "shouting" styles.
Pro Secret 32: 12 Bar Blues. The basis for thousands of songs in all styles.
Pro Secret 33: Passing Tones. Tones that "pass through" the current chord.
Pro Secret 34: Question-Answer Techniques. Repeating a previous musical phrase but in a new way.
Pro Secret 35: Far-Out Harmonies. Extended chords, altered chords.
Pro Secret 36: Syncopation. Playing between the beats.

There are other techniques the pros use, and new techniques are always being invented. But for a list of worthy goals for an aspiring piano player, this list will keep us busy for a long time.

For more info on piano playing secrets of the pros, please go to "Piano Playing Secrets Of The Pros!" In addition, a series of 101 free email lessons on piano playing is available at "Exciting Piano Lessons On Musical Chords & Sizzling Chord Progressions!"